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Origen de la intuicion Название книги: Ideas relativas a una fenomenologia pura y una filosofia fenomenologica. . Pagina 71 Автор: Husserl, Edmund - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo No podemos dudar y tener por cierta a la vez la misma materia de ser. Asimismo es claro que en el intento de dudar de algo de que tenemos conciencia como estando ahi delante acarrea necesariamente cierta abolicion de la tesis; La tesis de la que se duda, de lo que se tiene experiencia, al ponerse entre parentesis sigue existiendo, la tesis es una vivencia, pero no hacemos de ella "ningun uso", aunque se siegue teniendo conciencia de su existencia. pagina 71. Комментарии: HUSSERL-edmund-ideas-relativas-a-una-fenomenologia-pura-y-una-filosofia-fenomenologica-ocr.pdf 33 la ἐποχή fenomenologica Название книги: Ideas relativas a una fenomenologia pura y una filosofia fenomenologica. . Pagina 73 Автор: Husserl, Edmund - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo Εποχή Fenomenologica Colocamos entre parentesis todas y cada una de las cosas abarcadas en sentido ontico por esa tesis, asi pues en este mundo natural entero, que esta constantemente "para nosotros ahi delante", y que seguira estándolo permanentemente, como "realidad" de que tenemos conciencia, aunque nos de por colocarlo entre parentesis. No niego "este mundo" como si fuera un sofista, ni dudo de su existencia, como si fuera un eséptico, sino que practico la epoxe "fenomenologica" que me cierrra completamente todo juicio sobre existencias en el espacio y en el tiempo. Desconecto todas las ciencias referentes a este mundo natural, por sólidas que me parezcan. Desde el momento en que le inflijo el parentesis, no puedo hacer más que afrontarla. Lo que nosotros pedimos se encuentra en otra direccion. El mundo entero, puesto en la actitud natural, con que nos encontramos realmente en la experiencia, tomado plenamente "libre de teorias", tal como se tiene real experiencia de él, como consta claramente en la concatenacion de las experiencias no vale para nosotros ahora nada; sin ponerlo a prueba, pero tambien sin discutirlo, debe quedar colocado entre parentesis. De igual modo deben sucumbir al mismo destino todas las teorias y ciencias que se refieren a este mundo, por estimables que sean y esten fundadas a la manera positivista o de cualquier otra. pagina 73-74 Комментарии: 34 las determinaciones sensibles y el "espacio objetivo" Название книги: Ideas relativas a una fenomenologia pura y una filosofia fenomenologica. . Pagina 91 Автор: Husserl, Edmund - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo las determinaciones sensibles y el "espacio objetivo" El "verdadero ser" sería, pues, totalmente y por principio un ser definido de otra manera que el dado en la percepción como realidad presente en persona, el cual se da exclusivamente con determinaciones sensibles, entre las que figuran las del espacio sensible. La cosa de que propiamente se tiene experiencia suministra el simple "esto", una x vacía, que viene a ser el sujeto de determinaciones matemáticas y de las correspondientes fórmulas matemáticas y que no existe en el espacio de la percepción, sino en un "espacio objetivo", del cual es aquél el simple "signo", una multiplicidad euclidiana de tres dimensiones sólo simbólicamente representable. Lo dado en la percepcion sirve para definir ese ser trascendente del cual es el "signo". Es el contenido sensible de los datos de la percepcion algo distinto de la cosa verdadera y existente en sí, pero permanentemente es también el sustrato, el sujeto (la x vacía) de las deteerminaciones percibidas como aquello cuyos predicados fisicos determina el metodo exacto. pag 91 Комментарии: 35 la cosa y sus predicados, la ciencia Название книги: Ideas relativas a una fenomenologia pura y una filosofia fenomenologica. . Pagina 121 Автор: Husserl, Edmund - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo Reanudemos la marcha haciendo la afirmación, fácilmente comprobable, de que en el método de la física es la cosa percibida misma, siempre y por principio, exactamente la cosa que el físico investiga y determina científicamente. pag 121 LA COSA Y SUS PREDICADOS La cosa que el fisico observa, con la que experimenta, que esta viendo constantemente, toma en la mano, pone en la balanza, mete en el horno, esta cosa y no otra es la que se convierte en sujeto de los predicados fisicos, como son el peso, la masa, la temperatura, la resistencia electrica, etc. Igualmente son los procesos y relaciones percibidos mismos los determinados por medio de conceptos como fuerza, aceleración, energía, átomo, ión, etc. La cosa que aparece sensiblemente, la cosa que tiene las formas, colores, y cualidades olfativas y gustativas sensibles, es, pues, todo menos un signo de otra, sino en cierta medida un signo de si misma. Sólo estose puede decir: la cosa que aparece con estas y aquellas cualidades sensibles en las circunstancias fenoménicas dadas es para el fisico -que en general ha llevado a cabo ya la determinación física de semejantes cosas, en órdenes de apariencias de la índole respectiva - índice de una multitud de propiedades causales de esta misma cosa que en cuanto tales se dan a conocer justamente en cadenas de apariencias de índole bien conocida. Lo que se da a conocer en ellas es patentemente -justo en cuanto se da a conocer en unidades intencionales de vivencias de conciencia- trascendente por principio. Комментарии: 36 revolucion fenomenologica Название книги: Ideas relativas a una fenomenologia pura y una filosofia fenomenologica. . Pagina 1 Автор: Husserl, Edmund - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) La fenomenología, más que un sistema de doctrinas filosóficas, era un método . Y un método que además envuelve un desarrollo ilimitado por principio. Husserl buscó un lugar para la filosofía, un lugar que nadie más que ella podría llenar, y agotó sus energías prácticamente en ese esfuerzo. Por ese motivo, la fenomenología como teoría filosófica apenas se decanta por tesis precisas: tanto que casi podríamos decir que todo lo que caiga bajo el rótulo "filosofía realizada con un esfuerzo de seriedad y rigor" puede ser considerado como "fenomenología". La fenomenología nació en las Investigaciones lógicas como una refutación del psicologismo. El psicologismo pretendía ser un modo de solucionar algunos problemas que planteaban la teoría del conocimiento y de la ciencia, sin salir de los estrechos márgenes de un positivismo de "hechos". La idea del psicologismo consistía en hacerse una cierta composición de lugar, sin despegarse del suelo del sentido común de su época para conseguir de ese modo la ventaja de una apariencia de inteligibilidad inmediata. Husserl consideraba que debía hacerse una teoría del conocimiento puramente conceptual: por lo tanto, no podía utilizarse ni uno sólo de los conocimientos ya constituidos. Ese es el sentido que tiene su famosa epojé (suspensión del juicio) o reducción fenomenológica. Para poder estudiar las vivencias en cuanto tales, hay que modificar nuestro modo ordinario de vivirlas. Husserl describe este modo ordinario o actitud natural como un directo e ingenuo apuntar de la conciencia al mundo y a sus objetos, como una atención y un interés en ellos. La actitud natural está cargada de interpretaciones admitidas tácitamente como válidas, de prejuicios, de intelectualizaciones confusas que conducen a faltas de entendimiento. El resultado de la epojé fenomenológica es que nuestra atención se desplaza a los objetos al modo de darse esos objetos en la conciencia, o sea, a los fenómenos en sentido fenomenológico. Entonces el fenomenólogo sólo aceptará como fenómenos válidos aquellos que estén da dos originariamente, y que son la base para toda interpretación e intelectualización posterior. Tras la epojé o reducción fenomenológica -que nos han colocado plenamente en el terreno de partida de la subjetividad- viene la reducción eidética. Husserl se aparta del empirismo al defender que hay una verdadera intuición de esencias. La fenomenología queda ahora definida más estrictamente como la descripción eidética de la vida trascendental del yo. Por vida trascendental del yo entenderemos el con junto de vivencias o fenómenos originarios que, como datos absolutos a toda posición de trascendencia, hacen posible la apertura de la conciencia a un mundo. Se trata de apresar el origen último de todo posible sentido y validez de ser. Husserl se plantea la pregunta sobre cómo debemos concebir el sujeto para que después resulte inteligible el que ese sujeto lo sea de conocimiento. Partiendo de la esencia intuitivamente aprehensible del conocimiento -que es la apertura intencional de un sujeto a un objeto presente-, y a la luz de ella, tenemos que reexaminar nuestros conceptos tanto de la realidad del sujeto como de la realidad del objeto o mundo. Todos los conceptos, induyendo los que Kant llamaba conceptos puros, han de encontrar su sentido originario en una subjetividad trascendental, de la que parte toda concepción, tanto del mundo como de uno mismo. Esta es la reducción trascendental, por la que Husserl accedía a su peculiar idealismo fenomenológico. Husserl se opone a la separación entre un mundo de realidad correspondiente a las afirmaciones de la ciencia fisica matematizada -y un mundo de apariencias o fenómenos sensoriales meramente subjetivos. Si admitimos que la cosa sensible y sus cualidades son fenómenos subjetivos, entonces tampoco serán trascendentes las cosas en sentido fisico, puesto que son exactamente las mismas cosas que indicamos como un "esto" en la percepción sensible Ias que el físico estudia con profusión de experimientos en torno a ellas, de las que deriva, aplicando cánones estables de la racionalidad lógicoempírica, las determinaciones fisicas de la cosa. Con este "mito" cae también la teoría causal de la percepción Husserl crítica a los científicos (positivistas) y dice que se dejan guiar por los intereses particulares y que, además, están tan implicados en los intereses de la vida cotidiana que no se percatan de que su mirar no es objetivo. Habermas coincidirá con Husserl en esta critica a los científicos. El positivismo pretende "atenerse a los hechos" y toma a la ciencia experimental como modelo de toda racionalidad. Pero paradójicamente, muchso positivistas en tanto han exaltado a la ciencia y a la humanidad en su capacidad de producir ciencia, que pueden ser considerados, en el fondo, románticos. Hay quienes incluso, afirman que el positivismo es una suerte de "romanticismo de la ciencia". Es posible que sea Augusto Comte quien mejor represente al positivismo, tanto que podría ser considerado su fundador. En conjunto, la ciencia positiva, puede describirse por: Proponer un nuevo modelo de racionalidad científica Mantenerse dentro del terreno de los hechos, entendiendo esto último no tanto los datos inmediatos de los sentidos sino las relaciones entre dichos datos, es decir las leyes científicas. Las leyes dejan de ser hechos para transformarse en generalizaciones acerca de los hechos. Agonosticismo, se desprecia la metafísica en tanto que considera incognoscible todo lo que se encuentra más allá de los hechos. La ciencia es la única guía para la humanidad y tomando los ideales de la ilustración, confía en el progreso indefinido. El valor de la ciencia se subordina a la función práctica del saber y es relativizado en su sentido histórico. Representa la ideología burguesa en tanto defiende el utilitarismo. Puede afirmarse así que los ideales del positivismo coinciden parcialmente con los de Bacon, quien intentó recoger los primeros resultados de la revolución industrial. Pero el positivismo fue también un intento para remediar los conflictos sociales del siglo XIX. Hay, en el positivismo, una relación notable con el empirismo, en tanto valoran la información que proviene de la experiencia. Pero hay una clara diferencia, para el positivismo es, sin dudarlo, un realismo: los sentidos toman contacto con la realidad y las leyes de la naturaleza expresan con conexiones reales y no simplemente hábitos subjetivos. Комментарии: https://ar.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080701123936AATAEJs 38 Maxwell, las 4 ecuaciones Название книги: Microcosm The Quantum Revolution In Economics And Technology . Pagina 22 Автор: Gilder, George - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo The first crisis of classical physics revolved around the theory of light. In 1801 Thomas Young had conclusively demonstrated that ligth is a wave. In the 1860's Maxwell, integrating electricity with magnetism, offered a full and definitive description of all electromagnetic phenomena, including ligth, in just four simple equations that still stand as a towering synthesis of physical knowledge. Maxwell could compute exactly the speed of the ligth long before experiments of that precision. Nonetheless, Maxwell’s concept was incomplete because it failed to dispose of the issue of a medium for the waves to wave through. Traveling at a fixed speed through a continuous and infinitely divisible space, Maxwell’s electromagnetic flux seemed to require a fixed frame of reference. Maxwell’s successors assumed that this medium was “ether,” an “elastic solid” with fixed coordinates filling all cosmic space. Waves of light were believed to propagate through ether some- what as sea waves through water. The first great disaster to befall the Newtonian theory occurred in 1887 when two American researchers, Albert Michelson and E. W. Morley, tried to measure the impact of this ubiquitous solid. Raiding the forttme of Michelson’s wife, the two men contrived not one but several of the most exacting experiments in the history of physics to that day. But they never found any inkling of material ether. This effort by Michelson and Morley is usually depicted as an im- portant stage in developing the quantum theory of light. And so it was. Light emerged as an esoteric paradox of waves without substance traveling at a fixed speed in relation to a medium without substance. But the real meaning of Michelson-Morley was its role as the first step http://books.google.ru/books?id=xUxthKiLOvsC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Комментарии: http://www.eoht.info/page/George+Gilder?t=anon http://www.free-ocr.com/ 39 The quantum era Название книги: Microcosm The Quantum Revolution In Economics And Technology . Pagina 12 Автор: Gilder, George - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo The quantum era is still unfolding in a fourfold transformation of the world—in science, technology, business, politics—and even in philosophy. But all the changes converge in one epochal event: the overthrow of matter. The change originates in the microcosm of quantum theory itself - the new physics launched in Europe early this century—which overthrew matter in the physical sciences. At the foundation of the universe, Isaac Newton's hard, inert, and indivisible solids gave way to a rich panoply of paradoxical sparks, comprising waves and particles that violate every principle of Newtonian solidity. At the root of all the cascading changes of modem economic life—devaluing material resources in technology, business, and geopolitics—is this original overthrow of material solidity in the science of matter itself. The second step in the overthrow of matter came in the use of quantum theory to overcome the material limits of weight, heat, and force in the creation of new machines. The industrial age essentially managed and manipulated matter from the outside, lifting it against gravity, moving it against friction, melting or burning it to change its form. The quantum era manipulates matter from the inside, adapting its inner structure to human purposes. In the microchip, combining millions of components operating in billionths of seconds in a space the size of the wing of a fly, human beings built a machine that overcame all the conventional limits of mechanical time and space. Made essentially of the silicon in sand—one of the most common substances in earth—microchips find their value not in their substance but in their intellectual content: their design or software. The third great manifestation of the overthrow of matter is the impact of this technology on the world of business. By overcoming the constraints of material resources, the microchip has devalued most large accumulations of physical capital and made possible the launching of global economic enterprises by one entrepreneur at a workstation. With the overthrow of the constraints of material scarcity, gravity, and friction, large bureaucracies in government and business lose their power over individual creators and entrepreneurs. The fourth phase of the overthrow of matter is the collapse of the value of natural resources and territory in determining the distribution of power among nations. The microcosms of science, technology, and enterprise have converged in a global quantum economy that transcends all the usual measures of national power and wealth. The most valuable capital is now the capital of human mind and spirit. Intellectual capital can transform any physical environment, even a few small, cold, stony islands off the eastern coast of Asia, into a center of production and wealth. And the lack of such capital, or its abuse, can turn the greatest empire into a hollow shell reverberating with the frustration of tyrants. Комментарии: 40 La sociedad del conocimiento Название книги: Microcosm The Quantum Revolution In Economics And Technology . Pagina 17 Автор: Gilder, George - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo This change marks a great historic divide. Dominating previous human history was the movement and manipulation of massive ob-jects against friction and gravity. In the classic image of humanity, Atlas bears the globe on stooped shoulders, or Sisyphus wrestles a huge rock up an endless slope. For long centuries, humans grew rich chiefly by winning control over territory and treasure, slaves and ar-mies. Even the Industrial Revolution depended on regimented phys-ical labor, natural resources, crude energy sources, and massive transport facilities. Wealth and power came mainly to the possessor of material things or to the ruler of military forces capable of con-quering the physical means of production: land, labor, and capital. Today, the ascendant nations and corporations are masters not of land and material resources but of ideas and technologies. Japan and other barren Asian islands have become the world's fastest-growing economies. Electronics is the world's fastest-growing major industry. Комментарии: 41 El microchip Название книги: Microcosm The Quantum Revolution In Economics And Technology . Pagina 18 Автор: Gilder, George - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo The exemplary technology of this era is the microchip—the computer inscribed on a tiny piece of processed material. More than any other invention, this device epitomizes the overthrow of matter. Consider a parable of the microchip once told by Gordon Moore, chairman of Intel and a founding father of Silicon Valley: "We needed a substrate for our chip. So we looked at the substrate of the earth itself. It was mostly sand. So we used that. "We needed a metal conductor for the wires and switches on the chip. We looked at all the metals in the earth and found alutninum was the most abundant. So we used that. "We needed an insulator and too saw that the silicon in sand mixed with the oxygen in the air to form silicon dioxide—a kind of glass. The perfect insulator to protect the chip. So we used that." The result was a technology—metal oxide silicon (MOS), made from metal, sand, and air—in which materials costs are less than 1 percent of total expense. Combining millions of components on a single chip, operating in billionths of seconds, these devices transcend most of the previous constraints of matter. The most valuable substance in this, the fundamental product of the era, is the idea for the design. The overthrow of matter in economics is made possible by the previous overthrow of matter in physics. All the cascading devaluations of matter in the global economy and society originate with the fundamental transfiguration of matter in quantum science. Max Planck, the discoverer of the quantum, offered the key when he asserted that the new science entailed a movement from the "visible and directly controllable to the invisible sphere, from the macrocosm to the microcosm." The macrocosm may be defined as the visible domain of matter, seen from the outside and ruled by the laws of classical physics. The microcosm is the invisible domain, ruled and revealed by the laws of modem physics. Комментарии: 42 the materialist superstition: Название книги: Microcosm The Quantum Revolution In Economics And Technology . Pagina 19 Автор: Gilder, George - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo It is understandable that humans resist the microcosm and even rebel against it. Quantum theory is an abstruse and difficult set of ideas. It baffles many of its leading exponents and it perplexed Albert Einstein to his grave. Defying the testimony of the human senses, the new physics is contrary to all human intuition and metaphor. In the quantum domain, all conventional analogies of physics—such as tops, springs, and billiard balls—are radically misleading. Therefore, we cannot "understand" quantum theory in the way we can comprehend classical physics. Quantum theory simply does not make sense. The reason the new physics does not make sense to most humans, however, is that prevailing common sense is wrong. Common sense serves the materialist superstition: the belief that we live in a world of solid phenomena, mechanically interconnected in chains of cause and effect. The common wisdom of mankind has yet to absorb the simple truth that in proportion to the size of its nucleus the average atom in one of our cherished solids is as empty as the solar system. Few ponder the fact that an electron—a key to physical solidity—does not occupy any specific position in space; in a famous experiment, a single electron passes simultaneously through two separate holes in a screen. Separating the old and new sciences is a nearly unbridgeable gulf. Compare Pauling's agnosticism about the definition of matter with Isaac Newton's materialist confidence. Newton described matter as "solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles . . . even so very hard, as never to wear or break in pieces; no ordinary power being able to divide what God himself made one in the first creation .. . [to] compose bodies of one and the same nature and texture in all ages." Newton's matter at heart was inert, opaque, and changeless. Just as important, Newton had no problems with common sense. His science was anthropomorphic. He assumed that matter at its fundamental levels behaved like the material objects that we perceive. "We no other way know [the characteristics of matter] than by our senses. . . ." Its impenetrability, for example, "we gather not from reason but from sensation." For some two hundred years nearly all leading scientists shared these materialist assumptions, based on sensory models and determinist logic. Newton's great eighteenth-century countryman Adam Smith extended the materialist metaphor to society, contending that the economy itself is a clockwork, a "great machine." Later Karl Marx applied materialism to the very fabric of political ideas, which were deemed mere figments of ownership in physical capital, or of alienation from it. Sigmund Freud and his followers developed a psychological theory of forces and pressures, inhibited or released, built up or fed back, much like the classical mechanics of steam engines. Комментарии: 44 Del mecanicismo causistico a lo probabilistico Название книги: Microcosm The Quantum Revolution In Economics And Technology . Pagina 21 Автор: Gilder, George - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo Today most sophisticated people imagine that they have transcended Newton and have come to terms with the findings of modern science. But they have not. As an intellectual faith, materialist logic still prevails. Even theologians and philosophers who spurn material-ism in defining the meaning of life accept it as the lesson of science. They still believe that the solid world they see and feel—governed by determinate chains of cause and effect, rooted in Newtonian masses and forces—is real and in some sense definitive. The atom may not be ultimate, but they assume some other particle is, perhaps the quark. It has become a cliché to call the quark "the fundamental building block of nature." At the foundations of the physical world, so it is supposed, are physical solids—"building blocks"—that resemble in some way the solids we see. They link together in causal chains of mechanical logic like a set of cogs and levers. These solids are deemed to comprise all matter, from atoms and billiard balls to bricks and the human brain. Announced in 1913 and proved for the single electron of the hy-drogen atom, the Bohr model was the first great vindication of quan-tum theory. One test of scientific advance is whether it extends the realms of human understanding and control. Bohr's breakthrough ultimately opened the microcosm as an industrial site. The established physics could not explain the effectiveness of chem-istry, let alone extend it to atoms. Unlike a solar system, atoms do not exist in majestic isolation. Ceaselessly in movement, they endlessly jiggle together in what is called Brownian motion. People even step on them. In a world of Newtonian continuities, electron orbits would vary continually as atoms collided with one another. Constantly knocked loose in these collisions, electrons in a conductor should flow far more copiously and respond to heat more massively than experiments showed. Reunifying chemistry and physics in the microcosm, the new model of the atom explained the apparent solidity of the physical world. Establishing a gap, called a band gap, between an electron in its ground state and an electron excited to a higher energy level, the new physics showed why the constant collisions of atoms do not cause the atomic structure to collapse. A small collision will not affect an atom. Just as a musical string can resound only in its fundamental and resonant frequencies (all others canceled out by the rules of wave interference), an electron will not respond to any small disturbance. It will react only if it receives its necessary quantum of energy, defined by its resonant frequency times Planck's constant. Комментарии: 45 el electron , protagonista Название книги: Microcosm The Quantum Revolution In Economics And Technology . Pagina 25 Автор: Gilder, George - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo Such problems of the microcosm are evident in the history of the theory of the electron, the basic entity of electronics. Most interested people understand much of what electrons do. But very few have any clear idea of what an electron actually is, or its implications for the concept of matter and its overthrow in the world economy. From the telephone to the human brain, from the television set to the computer, information mostly flows in the form of electrons. This function of electrons has quantum roots. As in Planck's black body radiation, electrons do not respond to applied energy in a continuous, proportional, or linear way. They are non-linear; they have quantum thresholds and resonances. These quantum functions shape their electrical properties. In order to move through a solid, electrons must be freed from their atoms, jumping from one energy state to a free state across measurable energy "band gaps" in strict accordance with quantum rules. These rules give electrons identifiable and controllable features that can be used to convey information. With controlled pulses of electrons down wires, computers could be interconnected around the world. With controlled flows of electrons in and out of tiny capacitors, computer memories could be constantly read, written, and restored. With minute charges of electrons in silicon, computer transistors could be switched on and off. The most studied phenomenon in physics, electrons are constantly measured, manipulated, traced, aimed, and projected. Yet throughout the history of science, the electron has remained a humbling perplexity. Let us listen, and find out what it is telling us about the bizarre abundance of the domains beyond matter. At the time of Bohr's breakthrough, the electron was assumed to be matter. By contrast with the photon, the source of its energy, it showed measurable mass. But in 1923 Louis de Broglie developed a wave theory of the electron and Einstein endorsed it. In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger contrived a famous equation, still widely used by engineers and physicists today, that describes the electron's wave behavior. The following year, Werner Heisenberg offered a set of strange mathematical matrices derived from particle concepts that explained electron behavior as well as Schrodinger's wave equation did. Schrodinger then strengthened the theory immeasurably by showing that Heisen-berg's particle paradoxes were mathematically convertible into his own wave equation. Like light, electricity proved to be a flow of wave-particles. As if to banish any chance of a revival of Newtonian theory at the heart of the atom, Heisenberg then presented a radical new concept called the Uncertainty Principle. He asserted the intrinsic impossibility of ascertaining at once both the momentum and location of an electron. Thus Heisenberg showed that the necessary parameters of Newtonian equations were necessarily unmeasurable at the atomic level. In subsequent years, the hugely more massive protons and neutrons of the atomic nucleus were also shown to exhibit wave action. Wave behavior was clearly essential to the quantum domain. Many investigators began to see the world as consisting of simple waves of energy that could consolidate into mass. But this precarious trench of materialism also became untenable. Crossing decisively into the microcosm, Heisenberg declared that the waves which Bohr had examined in recreating the atom were not conventional waves at all. Designated "probability amplitudes," they were waves or fields that defined the statistical likelihood of finding an electron at any particular location. This was a climactic step in the overthrow of materialism in physics. With the electron itself depicted as a wave and the wave depicted as a probability field, the specific particle in this theory had disappeared into a cloud. With it disappeared the last shreds of Newtonian logic and mechanistic solidity. As Bohr put it, quantum theory required "a final renunciation of the classical idea of causality and a radical revision of our attitude toward the problem of physical reality." Комментарии: 46 the information factories Название книги: Caperucita Roja . Pagina 1 Автор: Gilder, George - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/14.10/cloudware.html Комментарии: 47 el advenimiento del microcosmos Название книги: Microcosm The Quantum Revolution In Economics And Technology . Pagina 30 Автор: Gilder, George - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo The "informativeness" of subatomic matter is the key to modem electronics. Because the world of the microcosm consists not of inert and opaque solids but of vibrant, complex, and comprehensible fields, it constitutes a useful arena for modern information technology. It is because there is so much analogical information in the microcosm that the microcosm is a uniquely powerful medium for information. The quantum-regulated movement of electrons across quantum-mapped crystalline paths epitomizes information technology, and in-formation technology epitomizes the quantum era. In the atom of information, this era acquires its definitive symbol. What was once a blank solid is now revealed in part as information, what was once an inert particle now shines with patterns and probabilities, what was once opaque and concrete is now a transparent tracery of physical laws. Far from plunging reality into clouds, quantum theory makes the universe radically more intelligible. The new science does not estrange human beings from their environment. Since thought is the most distinctly human power, the quantum world is actually more anthropomorphic than the world of Newtonian masses and forces. A more intelligible universe, penetrable by the human mind, endows people with greater power to create wealth. But it also radically changes the way wealth is created. Throughout previous human his-tory, the creation of wealth depended chiefly upon the extraction, transport, combination, and modification of heavy materials against the resistance of gravity, the constraints of entropy, and the constrictions of time and space. When things are large and approached out-side-in, it is expensive to move and manipulate them. Their costs derive from the weight, rarity, entropy, and resistance of their matter. But small things, virtually devoid of matter, move less like weights than like thoughts. In the microcosm, the costs of fuel and materials decline drastically; the expense devolves from matter to mind. Just as quantum science overthrew Newtonian matter in the explanation of the universe, the quantum economy overthrows Newtonian matter in the creation of new wealth. Комментарии: http://books.google.ru/books?id=xUxthKiLOvsC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=true 48 El diodo tunnel Название книги: Microcosm The Quantum Revolution In Economics And Technology . Pagina 33 Автор: Gilder, George - Ключевые слова: Filosofia Ensayo Nonetheless, working as surely as Planck's constant on the founda-tions of nineteenth-century physics, microcosmic ideas were infiltrat-ing the fabric of twentieth-century technology. A Japanese physicist named Leo Esaki passed through Pasadena in 1959 and left behind him a quantum concept. It led to a flawed product, a failed research project, and a new vision for microelectronics. Through a long strug-gle, still under way, that vision would transform the industry, then the global economy, and finally the politics of nations. The flawed product was called a tunnel diode. Invented at Sony in Japan in the mid-1950s, the tunnel diode won a Nobel Prize for Esaki, its inventor. The prize was for demonstrating a rare quantum effect in a seemingly practical device. As it turned out, the device was not practical. But it dramatically announced to the electronics world that the quantum era had begun. The failed research project was Carver Mead's. In response to Esaki's Pasadena visit, Mead resolved to perfect the tunnel diode. He failed. But his failure bore fruit more important than any prize. Still in his early twenties, Mead found in this flawed device the secrets of the quantum era and led the way into it. Комментарии: http://books.google.ru/books?id=xUxthKiLOvsC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=true

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